奥斯曼帝国的软弱
我们可以追溯那一系列改变中东和西方关系的事件：1683年，土耳其人在卡尔斯鲁厄条约上的失败，放弃了匈牙利帝国；1699年，他们在卡尔斯鲁厄签下了条约，放弃了匈牙利的哈普斯堡皇室和威尼斯的爱琴海；1718年，他们签署出去了更多的欧洲土地。1774年，他们失去了克里米亚半岛并且允许俄语的流入取代他们传统的基督文化；1798年，拿破仑. 波拿巴占领了埃及然后侵占了巴勒斯坦。同时，其他的穆斯林王朝，例如印度的帖木儿人（蒙古人），伊朗的萨法维家族和他们的继承人，摩洛哥谢里夫家族的统治者，在18世界的武力下都显得弱小。但是土耳其人是最接近新权利的人，有着传统的为伊斯兰教而战的勇士，并且如果欧洲人分割他们的土地，他们会战斗到最后。我因此关注奥斯曼帝国。
现象和原因
一些流行的历史会让你们相信土耳其帝国的统治者不以他们帝国的命运为意了。在酒精和大麻药品的影响下，使苏丹失去了维持他们的政权或防护他们的土地的的兴趣。（由此故事推开去）。藉着相同的表征，为了在政府的腐败中获得好处，可收买的大臣试着各种方法不让苏丹干扰他们。官员们购买了办公地点，将手下的职位卖个其他人，这些买了官的人便更加疯狂的对工人和农民进行剥削（这真是赤裸裸的贿赂）。耶尼切亚近卫军，本应该是土耳其的支柱的，却变成了一个缺乏训练的，不懂得使用现代武器的世袭集团。更坏的是，没有任何人要求改革，反而造成了动乱。在信仰上受到欧洲的影响下，持反对态度的地主和商人的财产被没收了。农民不堪强加的重税和地租，纷纷逃亡而成为土匪。而这些责任容易算在苏丹的头上正如土耳其人一直说的“鱼是从头开始发臭。”
改革苏丹和大臣
从流行的说法中，我们可以找到细小的事实。社会状况变得更加糟糕了。没有人否认苏丹Ibrhim的疯狂，他把他的280个情妇装在麻袋里扔到博斯普鲁斯海峡里淹死了。穆斯塔法•基马尔错误的坚决的领导他的军队投入了战争。他悲惨的败在萨伏衣的 Eugen 王子的手下，这个在那个时代的军事天才，仅消耗了土耳其的一个省的军队，而且他有很高的威望。酗酒问题和一夫多妻折磨之后的苏丹远远他们前十年要严重。而且，依靠土耳其国家系统而富足的统治阶级也没履行他们交税的义务。但是这个帝国得以延续的原因是这个国家体制不断产生出新的能看出国家的弊端并进行改革的苏丹和大臣。在改革之中，致力于建立新的土耳其民兵组织的奥斯曼二世，被他的近卫军杀死了。Murad Ⅳ一个强有力的战士和射手冠军，在一年之中杀死了25000个反叛者。Mahmud Ⅰ是第一个引入欧洲的新战术的人。Selim Ⅲ，介绍了一个包罗万象的改革方案，印度 Hyderabad 君主的称号-i-Jedid, 我将会在下一个章节中包括。
改革官制的情况如何呢？Koprulu出了很多使土耳其国家安全和实现土耳其政治上社会和美学上各方面繁荣的大臣。Mehmet，被他的阿尔巴尼亚基督徒父母带来，并且在皇家厨房里开始了他的事业生涯。作为对苏丹Mehmet Ⅳ十分重要的大臣，他打败了威尼斯人并且镇压了德兰斯斐尼亚和安那托利亚的叛乱，在镇压中处死了几千人。他的儿子Ahmet巩固了官制，检查了哈布斯堡皇室，并从波兰手中夺走了克里特岛。他的兄弟在1683年带领着奥斯曼军队到达了维也纳的城下，但在夺取城市的时候失败了。Mehmet Koprulu的一个为Mustafa Ⅱ服务的侄子试着建立工厂，并希望恢复农业生产到它以前的水平。
另一个主要的大臣是Damad Ibrahim，以使苏丹Ahmed Ⅲ建造快乐的宫殿和郁金香花园而闻名，但是他也带来了欧洲的艺术，委托土耳其的翻译工作者翻译西方的科学著作，而且引入了第一个土耳其人印刷杂志报纸。Mehmet Ragib在十八世纪中期在保持帝国的和平时，还企图通过财政的和合法的改革来改善他的国民的命运。我的观点是这样的，即使在这个土耳其历史上的黑暗时期，有许多苏丹和大臣尝试着带来光明。更多的欧化的改革家在十九世纪出现，我将会在稍后介绍他们。现在我必须申明的是单独的改革无法拯救奥斯曼帝国。
欧洲的权力及东方疑问
大多数的历史学家认为土耳其人处于困境的关键，荒谬的是，同时也是他们获得拯救的关键——在于基督教的欧洲。
(第一段直接参考了上面一个仁兄的,谢)
奥斯曼帝国的软弱
我们可以追溯那一系列改变中东和西方关系的事件：1683年，土耳其人在卡尔斯鲁厄条约上的失败，放弃了匈牙利帝国；1699年，他们在卡尔斯鲁厄签下了条约，放弃了匈牙利的哈普斯堡皇室和威尼斯的爱琴海；1718年，他们签署出去了更多的欧洲土地。1774年，他们失去了克里米亚半岛并且允许俄语的流入取代他们传统的基督文化；1798年，拿破仑. 波拿巴占领了埃及然后侵占了巴勒斯坦。同时，其他的穆斯林王朝，例如印度的帖木儿人（蒙古人），伊朗的萨法维家族和他们的继承人，摩洛哥谢里夫家族的统治者，在18世界的武力下都显得弱小。但是土耳其人是最接近新权利的人，有着传统的为伊斯兰教而战的勇士，并且如果欧洲人分割他们的土地，他们会战斗到最后。我因此关注奥斯曼帝国。
天啊，我以为就这些呢.....呼呼！不能忍了....
无背长椅弱点
我们能追踪改变的关系在中东并且西方之间由一系列的标日期的events:In 1683 无背长椅失灵对条约在Karlowitz, 割让匈牙利Empire;in 1699 他们签署了条约在Karlowitz, 割让匈牙利对Habsburgs 和爱琴海沿海对Venetians; 在1718 他们放弃了更多他们的欧洲lands;in 1774 他们丢失克里米亚并且允许俄国发表演讲关于他们的正统基督徒subjects;and 代表1798 年拿破仑Bonaparte 被占领的埃及和侵略了Palestine.Meanwhile, 其它回教朝代, 这样作为Timurids (Mughals) 印度, Safavids 和他们的后继者在伊朗, 和摩洛哥的Sharifian 统治者, 并且减弱在架置可能十八世纪无背长椅是最接近新力量, 传统上战斗了作为ghazis 为回教的Europe.But 之前, 并且站立丢失多数如果欧洲分成了他们的lands.My 焦点意志wherefore 是在无背长椅帝国。
一些症状和起因
一些普遍的历史会让您相信, 无背长椅统治者关心没什么为他们的帝国的fate.Enchanted 由闺房的魅力, dulled 由酒或麻汁, 由土耳其兵反叛或争吵的法院派别, sultans (因此故事去) 失去的兴趣阻碍在维护他们的政权或保卫他们的lands.By 上同样象征, venal vizirs 被设法保留sultans 在他们的方式外面, 为了从system.Bureaucrats 的腐败赢利买了他们的办公室和卖了下级岗位对其他人, 当大家在力量抠出了可怜的农民和工作者在是真正地被估计的bribes).The 土耳其兵, 应该是的税和费(regime or defending their lands.By the same token, the venal vizirs tried to keep the sultans out of their way, in order to profit from the corruption of the system.Bureaucrats bought their offices and sold subordinate posts to others, while everyone in power gouged the poor peasants and workers on taxes and fees (which were really assessed bribes).The janissaries, who should have been the backbone of the Ottoman army, became a hereditary caste of merchants 并且工匠谁象muskets 和bayonets.Worse 没有保留在训练或学会怎么使用如此现代武器, 他们翻转了他们的汤罐和去在狂暴行为如果任何人敢要求reforms.The ulama 把变成juhala ("ignoramuses"), 被浸泡在迷信和未触动过由知识扩展发生在Europe.Landowners 和客商由强盗抢夺了, 他们没有protection.Peasants 遭受了贪婪房东并且税famers;many 跑掉适合强盗themselves.So 悲哀的周期turned.Th 容易的答复将责备无能或无能为力的sultans.As 土耳其人过去常常说, "Balik basdan kokar"("the 鱼恶臭从头") 吗?
改革的Sultans 和Vizirs
有和平常一样, 在这样普遍的帐户, 真相毒菌在所有this.Conditions 得到worse.No 你否认Sultan Ibrhim 疯狂(r.1640-1648), 有他的280 个姘妇栓了在大袋里和淹没在Bosporus.Mustafa??r.1695-1703?was 错误坚持带领他的队伍入battle.His 灾难失败由于Eugen开胃菜, 年龄的军事天才的作用王子, 花费了无背长椅军队, 匈牙利省, 并且他们的军事prestige.Drinking 问题和闺房阴谋更折磨了最新sultans比他们有第一十。另外, 有挤奶无背长椅系统丰富自己当不执行他们的duties.But 无背长椅长寿的当中一个秘密是统治阶级的menbers 系统继续生产可胜任的sultans 并且看见腐败和被介绍的reforms.Among 的vizirs 改革的sultans 是Ossman?(r.1618-1622), 企图形成一个新土耳其民兵带领他的由janissaries;Muradv 被杀害? (r.1623-1640), 一位强有力的摔跤手和冠军射手执行25,000 个反叛主题在一唯一year;Mahmud?(r.1730-1754) 之内, 一带来欧洲教新战斗的techniques;and Selim?(r.1789-1807), 介绍一份全面改革计划, Nizam-i-Jedid, 我将包括在下个章节。
怎么样改革的vizirs?The Koprulu 家庭导致了加强无背长椅安全海外和首先实施政治, 社会, 和审美变动在home.The 的六盛大vizirs, Mehmet (d.1661), 由devshirme 以及Poland.His 兄弟的部份带领了无背长椅队伍维也纳门, 但失灵抓住Mehmet Koprulu 的采取了形式他的阿尔巴尼亚人基督徒父母和开始了他的事业运作在皇家kitchen.As 盛大vizir 对Sultan Mehmet?(r31648-1687), 他击败了Venetians 和废除了反叛在Transylvania 和Anatolia, 执行数以万计在process.His 儿子, Ahmet, 加强了vizirate, 被检查Habsburgs, 1683 年和采取了Crete city.A 侄子,
其它主要vizir 是Damad Ibrahim, 最好已知为牵制Sultan Ahmed?(r.1703-1730)into 大厦乐趣宫殿和他并且带来在欧洲艺术家, 委任西部科学工作的土耳其翻译的郁金香gardens;but, 和介绍了第一无背长椅打印的press.Mehmet Ragib 被设法在中间第十八个世纪改善他的主题的全部通过财政并且法律改革, 当保留帝国在peace.My 点是, 在这个无背长椅历史的黑暗时期, 有设法带来某一他们的light.More westernizing 改革者的sultans 和vizirs 会出现在第十九century;Iwill 写关于later.What Imust 做现在清楚是改革单独不能保存无背长椅帝国。
欧洲力量和东部问题
多数史学家认为, 无背长椅的困境的钥匙但还, 似是而非地, 他们救世放置在基督徒欧洲。
土耳其帝国的衰落
我们以一系列的事件来追溯中东和西方关系变化的历程，1683年，土耳其帝国在卡尔斯鲁厄的谈判中失礼，从而割让匈牙利帝国，1699年签定条约割让匈牙利给哈普斯堡皇室，爱琴海沿岸给威尼斯，1718年，割让更多欧洲领土，1774年，割让克里米亚，并允许俄国代表东正教内部事物发言，1798年拿破伦波拿马占领埃及，入侵巴勒斯坦，同时，在18世纪崛起的新兴欧洲势力反衬下，其他的穆斯林王朝，如印度的帖木儿（可汗），伊朗的萨维尔家族及其继承者们，摩洛哥的谢里夫家族的统治者们，都纷纷显得弱小。但是土耳其人最接近新势力，有着传统的为伊斯兰教而战的勇士，如果欧洲人分割他们的土地，他们会战斗到最后。我因此关注奥斯曼帝国。
OTTOMAN WEAKNESS
We can trace the changing relationship between the Middle East and the West by a series of dated events:In 1683 the Ottomans failed to a treaty at Karlowitz,ceding Hungary Empire;in 1699 they signed a treaty at Karlowitz,ceding Hungary to the Habsburgs and the Aegean coast to the Venetians; in 1718 they signed away more of their European lands;in 1774 they lost the Crimea and allowed Russia to speak on behalf of their Orthodox Christian subjects;and in 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Egypt and invaded Palestine.Meanwhile,other Muslim dynasties,such as the Timurids (Mughals) of India,the Safavids and their successors in Iran,and the Sharifian rulers of Morocco,were also weakening before the mounting might of eighteenth-century Europe.But the Ottomans were closest to the new powers,had traditionally fought as ghazis for Islam,and stood to lose the most if the Europeans partitioned their lands.My focus will wherefore be on the Ottoman Empire.
Some Symptoms and Causes
Some popular histories would have you believe that the Ottoman rulers cared nothing for their empire’s fate.Enchanted by the charms of the harem ,dulled by wine or hashish,hamstrung by janissary revolts or quarreling court factions,the sultans (so the story goes) lost interest in maintaining their regime or defending their lands.By the same token,the venal vizirs tried to keep the sultans out of their way,in order to profit from the corruption of the system.Bureaucrats bought their offices and sold subordinate posts to others,while everyone in power gouged the poor peasants and workers on taxes and fees (which were really assessed bribes).The janissaries,who should have been the backbone of the Ottoman army, became a hereditary caste of merchants and artisans who failed to keep in training or to learn how to use such modern weapons as muskets and bayonets.Worse,they overturned their soup pots and went on a rampage if anyone dared to call for reforms.The ulama turned into juhala (“ignoramuses”),steeped in superstition and untouched by the expansion of knowledge taking place in Europe.Landowners and merchants were robbed by brigands,against whom they had no protection.Peasants suffered from rapacious landlords and tax famers;many ran away to become brigands themselves.So the mournful cycle turned.Th easy answer is to blame incompetent or impotent sultans.As the Turks used to say,”Balik basdan kokar”(“the fish stinks from the head”)。
The Reforming Sultans and Vizirs
There is,as usual in such popular accounts,a germ of truth in all this.Conditions were getting worse.No one denies the insanity of Sultan Ibrhim (r.1640-1648),who had his 280 concubines tied up in sacks and drowned in Bosporus.MustafaⅡ（r.1695-1703）was wrong to insist on leading his troops into battle.His catastrophic defeat at the hands of Prince Eugen of Savoy,the military genius of the age,cost the Ottomans an army,the province of Hungary,and their military prestige.Drinking problems and harem intrigues afflicted the later sultans far more than they had the first ten. In addition,there were menbers of the ruling class who milked the Ottoman system to enrich themselves while failing to perform their duties.But one of the secrets of Ottoman longevity was that the system went on producing capable sultans and vizirs who saw the corruption and introduced reforms.Among the reforming sultans were OssmanⅡ(r.1618-1622),whose attempt to form a new Turkish militia led to his being killed by the janissaries;MuradvⅣ (r.1623-1640),a powerful wrestler and champion archer who executed 25,000 rebellious subjects within a single year;MahmudⅠ(r.1730-1754),the first to bring in Europeans to teach new fighting techniques;and Selim Ⅲ(r.1789-1807),who introduced a comprehensive reform scheme,the Nizam-i-Jedid,which I will cover in the next chapter.
What about the reforming vizirs?The Koprulu family produced six grand vizirs who enhanced Ottoman security abroad and implemented political,social,and aesthetic changes at home.The first,Mehmet (d.1661),was taken form his albanian Christian parents by the devshirme and started his career working in the imperial kitchen.As grand vizir to Sultan Mehmet Ⅳ(r31648-1687),he defeated the Venetians and quashed revolts in Transylvania and Anatolia,executing thousands in the process.His son,Ahmet,strengthened the vizirate,checked the Habsburgs,and took Crete as well as parts of Poland.His brother led the Ottoman troops to the gates of Vienna in 1683,but failed to capture the city.A nephew of Mehmet Koprulu,serving Mustafa Ⅱ,reduced taxes on consumer goods,tried to set up factories,and hoped to restore farm production to its earlier level.
Another major vizir was Damad Ibrahim,best known for diverting Sultan Ahmed Ⅲ(r.1703-1730)into building pleasure palaces and tulip gardens;but he also brought in European artists,commissioned Turkish translations of Western scientific works,and introduced the first Ottoman printing press.Mehmet Ragib tried in the mid-eighteenth century to better his subjects’ lot through fiscal and legal reforms,while keeping the empire at peace.My point is that,even in this dark age of Ottoman history,there were sultans and vizirs who tried to bring in some light.More westernizing reformers would arise in the nineteenth century;Iwill write about them later.What Imust make clear now is that reforms alone could not save the Ottoman Empire.
THE EUROPEAN POWERS AND THE EASTERN QUESTION
Most historians think that the key to the Ottomans’ predicament ---but also,paradoxically,their salvation---lay in Christian Europe.
文章在这里，谢谢，提问不能贴完我用这个贴上
OTTOMAN WEAKNESS
We can trace the changing relationship between the Middle East and the West by a series of dated events:In 1683 the Ottomans failed to a treaty at Karlowitz,ceding Hungary Empire;in 1699 they signed a treaty at Karlowitz,ceding Hungary to the Habsburgs and the Aegean coast to the Venetians; in 1718 they signed away more of their European lands;in 1774 they lost the Crimea and allowed Russia to speak on behalf of their Orthodox Christian subjects;and in 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Egypt and invaded Palestine.Meanwhile,other Muslim dynasties,such as the Timurids (Mughals) of India,the Safavids and their successors in Iran,and the Sharifian rulers of Morocco,were also weakening before the mounting might of eighteenth-century Europe.But the Ottomans were closest to the new powers,had traditionally fought as ghazis for Islam,and stood to lose the most if the Europeans partitioned their lands.My focus will wherefore be on the Ottoman Empire.
Some Symptoms and Causes
Some popular histories would have you believe that the Ottoman rulers cared nothing for their empire’s fate.Enchanted by the charms of the harem ,dulled by wine or hashish,hamstrung by janissary revolts or quarreling court factions,the sultans (so the story goes) lost interest in maintaining their regime or defending their lands.By the same token,the venal vizirs tried to keep the sultans out of their way,in order to profit from the corruption of the system.Bureaucrats bought their offices and sold subordinate posts to others,while everyone in power gouged the poor peasants and workers on taxes and fees (which were really assessed bribes).The janissaries,who should have been the backbone of the Ottoman army, became a hereditary caste of merchants and artisans who failed to keep in training or to learn how to use such modern weapons as muskets and bayonets.Worse,they overturned their soup pots and went on a rampage if anyone dared to call for reforms.The ulama turned into juhala (“ignoramuses”),steeped in superstition and untouched by the expansion of knowledge taking place in Europe.Landowners and merchants were robbed by brigands,against whom they had no protection.Peasants suffered from rapacious landlords and tax famers;many ran away to become brigands themselves.So the mournful cycle turned.Th easy answer is to blame incompetent or impotent sultans.As the Turks used to say,”Balik basdan kokar”(“the fish stinks from the head”)。
The Reforming Sultans and Vizirs
There is,as usual in such popular accounts,a germ of truth in all this.Conditions were getting worse.No one denies the insanity of Sultan Ibrhim (r.1640-1648),who had his 280 concubines tied up in sacks and drowned in Bosporus.MustafaⅡ（r.1695-1703）was wrong to insist on leading his troops into battle.His catastrophic defeat at the hands of Prince Eugen of Savoy,the military genius of the age,cost the Ottomans an army,the province of Hungary,and their military prestige.Drinking problems and harem intrigues afflicted the later sultans far more than they had the first ten. In addition,there were menbers of the ruling class who milked the Ottoman system to enrich themselves while failing to perform their duties.But one of the secrets of Ottoman longevity was that the system went on producing capable sultans and vizirs who saw the corruption and introduced reforms.Among the reforming sultans were OssmanⅡ(r.1618-1622),whose attempt to form a new Turkish militia led to his being killed by the janissaries;MuradvⅣ (r.1623-1640),a powerful wrestler and champion archer who executed 25,000 rebellious subjects within a single year;MahmudⅠ(r.1730-1754),the first to bring in Europeans to teach new fighting techniques;and Selim Ⅲ(r.1789-1807),who introduced a comprehensive reform scheme,the Nizam-i-Jedid,which I will cover in the next chapter.
What about the reforming vizirs?The Koprulu family produced six grand vizirs who enhanced Ottoman security abroad and implemented political,social,and aesthetic changes at home.The first,Mehmet (d.1661),was taken form his albanian Christian parents by the devshirme and started his career working in the imperial kitchen.As grand vizir to Sultan Mehmet Ⅳ(r31648-1687),he defeated the Venetians and quashed revolts in Transylvania and Anatolia,executing thousands in the process.His son,Ahmet,strengthened the vizirate,checked the Habsburgs,and took Crete as well as parts of Poland.His brother led the Ottoman troops to the gates of Vienna in 1683,but failed to capture the city.A nephew of Mehmet Koprulu,serving Mustafa Ⅱ,reduced taxes on consumer goods,tried to set up factories,and hoped to restore farm production to its earlier level.
Another major vizir was Damad Ibrahim,best known for diverting Sultan Ahmed Ⅲ(r.1703-1730)into building pleasure palaces and tulip gardens;but he also brought in European artists,commissioned Turkish translations of Western scientific works,and introduced the first Ottoman printing press.Mehmet Ragib tried in the mid-eighteenth century to better his subjects’ lot through fiscal and legal reforms,while keeping the empire at peace.My point is that,even in this dark age of Ottoman history,there were sultans and vizirs who tried to bring in some light.More westernizing reformers would arise in the nineteenth century;Iwill write about them later.What Imust make clear now is that reforms alone could not save the Ottoman Empire.
THE EUROPEAN POWERS AND THE EASTERN QUESTION
Most historians think that the key to the Ottomans’ predicament ---but also,paradoxically,their salvation---lay in Christian Europe.
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